Perspectives of Adult and Community Education: Group 3

Perspectives of Adult and Community Education:

Group 3

Katherine Cope, Jacqueline S. Davis, Hagan Lawson and Shane Webster

Ball State University

EDAC 631

Perspectives of Adult and Community Education: Group 3

Group Member	Role	Commented On
Katherine Cope	Contributor	Group 1
Jacqueline Davis	Leader	Group 2
Hagan Lawson	Contributor	Group 2
Shane Webster	Contributor	Group 4

Introduction

Adult education has been difficult to define and categorize as the audience, intent and support for such education has shifted over time. In the Chang interview “Adult Education with Different Hats,” Dr. Sharan Merriam (2019d) discusses the magnitude of adult education and the challenge in establishing an overarching statement that encompasses the field. Merriam describes how the definition of adult education is restricted to the lens of the individual (Chang, B. (Interviewer) & Merriam, S. (Interviewee), 2019d). As this definition is “in the eye of the beholder”, federal and private support can be restricted to educational programs that either support the economy or promote specific agendas of individual groups. According to Dr. John Boulmetis, who has analyzed federal financial trends in support of adult education, the U.S. government’s change in priority from basic literacy education to vocational education doesn’t include support for social justice, community education, or programs that promote personal growth (Chang, B. (Interviewer) & Boulmetis, J. (Interviewee), 2019b). The motivation is no longer betterment of the individual, but rather creation of contributing members of society (Chang, B. (Interviewer) & Boulmetis, J. (Interviewee), 2019a). This, in turn, impacts the ability to develop and promote such adult education programs. In the Chang interview “Adult Education in Higher Education,” Dr. Carol Kasworm asserts that the adult education provided in an informal environment provides the necessary information and knowledge for skills mandatory in the workplace or for personal gain (Chang, B. (Interviewer) & Kasworm, C. (Interviewee), 2019c). This stance blurs the lines of education for the good of the individual or to satisfy a specific agenda, as well as muddies the waters between formal, non-formal, and informal adult education.

Discussion

Throughout history, the military and the church have been the largest providers of adult education (Hake, 2010). Because each of these organizations have very specific agendas, the education provided, while foundational, was designed to benefit their purpose and agendas, thereby building and expanding their organizations (Hake, 2010). During the nineteenth century, more civic organizations began to educate adults, which also spread political agendas (Williams, 2012). The second industrial revolution moved jobs from farms to factories, meaning informal adult education started to include on-the-job training that was outside the realm of apprenticeships (Sticht, 2002). The above examples all include education for a specific purpose – the benefit of the educator, not the student. It wasn’t until after World War 1 that education began to shift for the greater good and for individual enlightenment, as much of the adult education programs found today (MacDonald, 2019). Lifelong learning, especially with the advancement of technology, has increase not only in popularity, but also in scope (Chang, 2019d). Merriam describes a lifelong learning institute geared toward learners over the age of 50. This national institute has over 1500 members and offers over 100 different courses each semester (Chang, 2019d). Her example of gerontology education can be transferred, in a generalized structure, to any generation. As each generation grows up with different technology, adult education will continually evolve to meet the needs of the students. Regardless of how it looks, the premise behind adult education remains the same. Merriam not only acknowledges the variations in types of adult education, but also believes the experience and expertise of the learner will bias content to suit their own needs (Chang, 2019d). This is not a negative aspect, just a realistic outcome of the environment. The applicability of one view of adult education may not necessarily reflect the view of another, and neither party would be wrong. Adult education is a growing field of study where educators make changes to the programs with stakeholders in mind from the needs of the students, to those of the community (Tisdell, Wright, & Taylor, 2016). The most effective adult education programs are those that account for the prior experience of the adult learner (Hand, Cavagnetto, Chen, & Park, 2016; Lakey, 2010; Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007). This concept greatly illustrates the dilemma when defining, explaining and funding adult education.

As the purpose and personal goals of adult education shift, so does the financial support. At the beginning of the twentieth century, health, safety and socio-economic status were big drivers of adult education (Sticht, 2002; Williams, 2012). From 1920-1970, the U.S. government focused efforts on literacy and provided basic education to soldiers and veterans (Chang, 2019b; Sticht, 2002). However, in the 1970’s and 1980’s, governmental support began to decrease and then funds were shifted to vocational education to help build the economy. The Vocational Education Act of 1984, or the Perkins Act, was designed to provide additional funding for vocational education programs with emphasis placed upon support of special population/needs students (Carl D. Perkins Vocational Education Act, 1984). The Perkins Act was also designed to assist adults with vocational retraining to accommodate the changing workforce (Carl D. Perkins Vocational Education Act, 1984). The National Science Foundation was created with the mandate to train a workforce that would provide a competitive edge in the global economy (NSF Act, 1950). Even today, every grant proposal that is submitted, there must be a section on the “Broader Impacts” and “Intellectual Merit” of the project in relation to this mandate, as an uneducated workforce is a threat to the U.S. economy (NSF Act, 1950). According to Boulmetis, the U.S. government, via taxpayer support, contributes to society by creating productive citizens (Chang, 2019a). This federal support, however, isn’t directed to social justice, community education, or programs that promote personal growth. Such support would not yield the direct benefit of increased skilled workers entering the workforce (Chang, 2019a). Because of this view and lack of federal programmatic support, many adult education programs are sponsored by private organizations (Chang, 2019a). Arguably, these private organizations often have specific agendas, therefore it is still imperative that adult education programs receive financial support from the federal government to ensure unbiased education is available to citizens (Chang, 2019a; Hake, 2010).

Boulmetis states that throughout the development of federal financial programs, the goal has consistently involved training adults with the technical skills that are necessary for life after war (Chang, 2019a; U.S. Department of Education, 2013). During this time, there were several programs, laws and acts enacted that were formed to assist in the growth of adult and community education. One enactment that continues to be a key component of adult education is the GI Bill or the Servicemen’s Readjustment Benefits Act of 1944. This bill served as a way to promote training to those who dedicated time to the United States’ armed services, by supporting adult education (U.S. Department of Education, 2013). Millions of veterans and their families have been able to attend postsecondary school supported by this bill. The GI Bill can assist with undergraduate or graduate course work, as well as training programs. This bill also allows veteran families to be financially assisted (About G.I. Bill Benefits, 2019). Supporting Boulmetis’s stance, the U.S. government benefits from educating veterans, as it supports employability, and therefore, economic viability of the veteran.  

While defining and supporting adult education can be difficult, it is also important to examine the development and promotion of adult education. Dr. Carol E. Kasworm has witnessed many changes in adult education throughout her career, especially form organizations that provide staff development, human development and social movements (Chang, 2019c). The reliance on Human Resources (HR) in business applications demands company-driven education. This can place a wide variety of differing presentations and experiences in the hands of the educator, in this case, HR employees. This further supports Merriam’s thoughts on the challenge of defining adult education because motives, rational, opinions, and justification will be unique to individual business needs (Woelke, 2017). The push to educate workers by companies for their particular need is representative of necessity. Most companies were not set up with the purpose of education (Spence & Cass, 1950). Changes in mechanization and technology have created situations where the organizations must provide ongoing sessions for staff so that the employees can remain current in their field. During the Chang interview, Kasworm discusses programs in the field of adult education which, in her estimation, are primarily providing a non-specialized skillset (Chang, 2019c).

Kasworm suggested that training provided by non-certified individuals as being sub-par to the instruction provided in a formal environment (Chang, 2019c). Meanwhile, organizations and their HR departments are meeting demands and filling voids by developing programs in informal environments, whether to further individual education needs or satisfy the consumer in promoting or creating skills not previously learned. Kasworm supports her views on education, and the devaluing of both traditional educator training and curricular formation by society with evidence of homeschooling and charter schools as a source of primary education becoming “commonplace” (Chang, 2019c). This opinion is combated with research that shows homeschooled students succeed and that their success is not related to the level of education achieved by their parent(s) who are the primary source of education (Ray, 2019). On average, homeschooled score as well as public school students on standardized achievement tests (Ray, 2017), even though their GPA is not as strong a predictor for success (Yu, Sackett, & Kuncel, 2016). While agreed, not every homeschooled child will succeed, colleges actively seek them, and research shows the students go on to succeed at an equal or higher rate than the general population (Ray, 2019). Further, in just over a decade, there has been a rapid expansion of charter schools across the country, yielding more charter school students than homeschooled (Ray, 2017). While created to combat what was viewed as failing public school systems, charter schools continue to fall under criticism for not delivering on increasing student advancement. Reviews have provided evidence that charter schools show inconsistent quality in the education received (Grady, 2012). However, the idea and working of the systems for charter schools is still in its infancy.

Kasworm acknowledges that the significant turbulence that is being experienced in elementary schools as in higher education. But, the stereotype that post-secondary education is for the elite or specifically trained is crumbling (Chang, 2019c). Is this turbulence or adaptability? During the Chang interview “Adult Education with Different Hats”, Merriam discusses how the field of adult education is primarily used for developing skills for today’s world (Chang, 2019d). What does this look like? It depends on the learner, their personal self-interest and educational goals. Fifty years ago, one of the top sources of non-formal adult/community education was the public library (Stone, 1953). Fast forward to the present, the popularity of the internet as a means of education has far surpassed that of the public library. This example demonstrates Merriam’s discussion of where adult education was, where it is, and the unknown future appearance of adult education.

Implications

Education does not have to come from a formal environment to further an individual in their learning process. Adult education is a process with many facets and is highly adaptable to the necessity of the learner. At times, non-formal community education is the answer for areas that require common knowledge. In others, individual education must be pursued through means like conferences, online/digital technology, and personal research through informal education or other, atypical methods. Regardless of the content and delivery method, each educator will be responsible for continuing education throughout the duration of their teaching career. This may present itself as formal, non-formal and informal education, but the individual needs will dictate the necessary experience. 

As our society continues to discover the importance of education, students are studying a plethora of subjects; these subjects may not exactly result in a related job. Today, the majority of governmental support does not discriminate against specific topics or courses of study. While government continues to support the development of productive citizens, society is bending the governmental perspective to allow individuals to seek out revolutionary modes of employment. Previously, individuals were criticized for pursuing passions such as art, music or storytelling, suggesting these fields were unacceptable career paths; however, society has become much more open-minded. The increased popularity of a liberal arts education has helped to create a more global citizen who is well-rounded and encompasses a wide ubiquitous knowledge-base. Universities are now concentrating on developing soft skills that are in demand in the marketplace– critical thinking, discernment, appropriate social interaction, the ability to work in groups, discipline, problem solving and tenacity. A result of this differentiated shift in focus has led to more fragmented non-formal and informal education programs (Chang, 2019c). Organizations are almost required to train for specialized skills necessary for the profession (Chang, 2019c), but are doing so with a generation of employees with a set of soft skills that are often, “untrainable”.

In opposition to Kasworm’s views, the regular use of staff development by organizations does not hinder the field of adult education in the formal sense. Adult education provided by organizations, whether it is continuing education credits or building on a current skill, are valuable tools in our society. In secondary education, teachers epitomize the very idea of adult education with different hats. Educators in this field are not limited to content knowledge alone.  There is a plethora of basic/advanced concepts that an educator must be proficient to include in pedagogy: English, mathematics, oral communication, limited counseling, and CPR, to name a few. The expectation is that educators do not have mastery in all these fields, but rather develop a standard grasp and continue the pursuit of knowledge in each of these varying subjects. These goals are accomplished through the many methods and ranges of adult education. Merriam’s stance that placing all adult education under one “umbrella” is a difficult, if not impossible, task (Chang, 2019d). One could argue that student age is a highly influencing factor when defining this field.

As educational standards, societal/parental expectations, governmental requirements and technology evolve, so will the appearance, content and participants of adult education. Ensuring educators are versed in areas other than contextual topics benefit society by creating well-rounded, educated citizens. It creates a community where the educator is not only leading through curriculum, but also facilitates learning. Training like this can only be accomplished through the versatility and adaptability of adult education. It is this versatility and adaptability that will ensure adult and community education will evolve over time, continuing to meet the needs of society. 

Area	Summary
Introduction	1.     Adult education is difficult to define and categorize as the audience, intent and support changes over time. 2.     As the purpose and goals of adult education shift, so does the financial support, whether from federal or private sources. 3.     The current needs of the individual and society shape the definition, explanation and funding of adult education
Discussion	We concur with the following: 1.     Historically, adult education has been provided to support a specific agenda or to benefit the educator or benefactor. 2.     Adult education of today supports the lifelong learner. 3.     As each generation grows up with different technology, adult education will continually evolve to meet the needs of the students 4.     Federal financial support for adult education centers on creating productive citizens to support the economy. 5.     Many non-formal programs support human development, but formal programs are becoming more broad, creating well rounded students. 6.     The increase in non-formal and informal learning perpetrates the notion that educators do not “need” specialized training, and educational opportunities are becoming “commonplace”.
Implications	1.     Education may present itself as formal, non-formal or informal, but the individual needs of the student will direct the experience 2.     While the government continues to support the development of productive citizens, society is bending the governmental perspective to allow individuals to seek out revolutionary subjects of study and, therefore, modes of employment. 3.     The increased popularity of a liberal arts education has helped to create a more global citizen who is well-rounded and encompasses a wide ubiquitous knowledge-base and has developed the “soft skills” previously thought “untrainable”. 4.     A result of this differentiated shift in focus has led to more fragmented non-formal and informal education programs. 5.     Categorizing all adult education under one “umbrella” is a difficult, if not impossible, task. 6.     As educational standards, societal/parental expectations, governmental requirements and technology evolve, so will the appearance, content and participants of adult education. 7.     Adult education will continue to evolve over time, meeting the needs of society.

References

About G.I. Bill Benefits. (2019, September 25). Retrieved from U.S. Department of Veterans

            Affairs: https://www.va.gov/education/about-gi-bill-benefits/

Carl D. Perkins Vocational Education Act. (1984). Pub. L. 98-524, 98 Stat. 2435, codified as amended at U.S.C. §§ 1–521.

Chang, B. (Interviewer) & Boulmetis, J. (Interviewee). (2019a, January 24). Results driven financial support. [Interview audio file]. Retrieved from Ball State University EDAC 631 course materials: https://bsu.instructure.com/courses/73839/files/2264585?module_item_id=769490

Chang, B. (Interviewer) & Boulmetis, J. (Interviewee). (2019b, January 24). Trends of financial support. [Interview audio file]. Retrieved from Ball State University EDAC 631 course materials: https://bsu.instructure.com/courses/73839/files/2264583?module_item_id=769491

Chang, B. (Interviewer) & Kasworm, C. (Interviewee). (2019c, February 26). Adult education in higher education. [Interview audio file]. Retrieved from Ball State University EDAC 631 course materials: https://bsu.instructure.com/courses/73839/files/2264589?module_item_id=769492

Chang, B. (Interviewer) & Merriam, S. (Interviewee). (2019d, January 16). Adult education with different hats. [Interview audio file]. Retrieved from Ball State University EDAC 631 course materials: https://bsu.instructure.com/courses/73839/files/2264586/download?download_frd=1

Grady, D. P. (2012, July). GEORGE JAY JOSEPH EDUCATION LAW WRITING AWARD WINNER: Charter school revocation: A method for efficiency, accountability, and success. Journal of Law and Education, 41, 513. Retrieved from https://advance-lexis-com.proxy.bsu.edu/api/document?collection=analytical-materials&id=urn:contentItem:5624-GDF0-00CV-S066-00000-00&context=1516831

Hake, B. J. (2010). Rewriting the history of adult education: The search for narrative structures. Learning and Education, 313, 14-19. doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-044894-7.00017-8

Hand, B., Cavagnetto, A., Chen, Y., & Park, S. (2016). Moving past curricula and strategies: Language and the development of adaptive pedagogy for immersive learning environments. Research in Science Education, 46(2), 223-241. doi:10.1007/s11165-015-9499-1

Lakey, G. (2010). Facilitating group learning (mobi file ed.). San Fransico, CA: Jossey-Bass.

MacDonald, S. Z. (2019, April). An insurrection of women: Deans of women and student government after the great war. Historical Studies in Education. doi:10.32316/hse-rhe.v31i1.4661

Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide (3rd ed.). San Fransisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

NSF Act. (1950). 150, 42 U.S.C. §1861, et seq.

Ray, B. D. (2017). A systematic review of the empirical research on selected aspects of homeschooling as a school choice. Journal of School Choice, 11(4). doi:10.1080/15582159.2017.1395638

Ray, B. D. (2019, January 7). Research facts on homeschooling. Retrieved from National Home Education Research Institute: nheri.org/research-facts-on-homeschooling/

Robinson, K. J. (2011, September). The rise of choice in the U.S. university and college 1910-2005. Sociological Forum, 26(3), 601-622. doi:10.1111/j.1573-7861.2011.01264.x

Servicemen's Readjustment Act. (1944, June 22). Pub. L. 78-346, 58 Stat 284, codified as amended at U.S.C. §§ 3301.

Spence, R. B., & Cass, A. W. (1950, June 1). The agencies of adult education. Review of Educational Research, 20(3), 230-246.

Sticht, T. (2002). The rise of the adult education and literacy system in the United States: 1600-2000. The Annual Review of Adult Learning and Literacy, 3(2). Retrieved from http://ncsall.net/index.html@id=569.html

Stone, C. W. (1953, Spring). Adult education and the public library. In Library Trends, 01(4), Current Trends in Public Libraries: 437-453. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/2142/5491

Tisdell, E. J., Wright, R. R., & Taylor, E. W. (2016, February 1). Adult education faculty and programs in North America: Faculty background, work, and satisfaction. Adult Education Quarterly, 66(1), 76-95.

U.S. Department of Education: Office of Vocational and Adult Education. (2013). An american heritage: Federal adult education - A legislative history 1964-2013. Retrieved from https://lincs.ed.gov/publications/pdf/Adult_Ed_History_Report.pdf

Williams, J. (2012). The limits of good intentions: A historical analysis of pioneering progressive educators in Upstate South Carolina (1910–1920). University of South Carolina. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing. Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/1022640003

Woelke, L. (2017). The role of adult education. [PDF document]. Retrieved from The University of the Fraser Valley: https://www.ufv.ca/media/assets/adult-education/The-Role-of-Adult-Education-Leanne-Woelke.pdf

Yu, M. C., Sackett, P. R., & Kuncel, N. R. (2016). Predicting college performance of homeschooled versus traditional students. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 35(4). doi:10.1111/emip.12133